Biology as a Science

Biology as a Science 

What do you mean by Biological knowledge?

Biological knowledge pervades our culture. It forms the basis of modem medicine and agriculture and is used to make practical decisions. Consider, for example, how our knowledge of genetic material is used in court. In 1989, a man was convicted of rape. He had been identified positively by two victims and sentenced to two life terms plus 335 years in prison. Four years later, biological tests showed that his DNA (hereditary material) did not match the DNA of sperm collected from the victims right after the rapes. The chance that this man committed the rapes was l in 300 million. He was innocent without doubt. Real information, as provided in this case by our knowledge of DNA molecules, has become invaluable in helping juries make correct decisions. 

Biological knowledge is a product of the scientific process, a way of thinking developed during the sixteenth century. What would our lives be like without the scientific process? We would still try to cure illnesses and to under-stand the world around us, for it is our nature to be curious and progressive. But without a process of rigorous testing, in which false conclusions are eliminated, knowledge. would come only from trial-and-error learning. Our culture would be based largely on irrational fears, omens, and signs, as it was prior to the advent of science. New medical therapies, for instance, would be tried at random. If ingesting a particular herb or applying blood-sucking leeches coincided with an improvement in health, then a "cure" would be declared and the procedure added to the physician's repertoire. There would be no understanding of what produced the illness and therefore no therapy directed at the underlying cause.

 Modern medicine, developed by the scientific process, is based on an understanding of how the human body functions. We know how DNA molecules direct the development of traits, and we use this knowledge to treat genetic disorders. We know how the human body fights disease microbes, and we use this knowledge to develop antibiotics and vaccines. Real understanding comes only from rigorous scientific testing. 

How do scientists acquire knowledge? How does the scientific process differ from trial-and-error learning? Why is science more successful at finding truths than other forms of thought? Why do scientists sometimes change their minds? The goal of this introductory chapter is to answer these questions to explain the nature of science and the foundations of modem biology.
 

The Realm of Biology

Biology is the study of life. It encompasses all aspects of life, from the chemistry of genes to the neural basis of memory to the mating behaviors of squirrels. The goal of biological research is to explain and clarify relationships within and between all forms of life. The product of this research, biological knowledge, can then be used by our society in a variety of ways.
 

History of Science

Humans have always studied nature. Our distant ancestors observed the habits of antelope and other game, the seasonal cycles of edible plants, and the environments in which these foods were found. Then, approximately 10,000 years ago, they began to use this knowledge to alter nature; they developed agriculture. These practical people solved problems by testing alternatives: the best seeds for planting were discovered by growing many varieties and seeing which ones gave the best yield. They went on to invent tools, like the wheel and fork, by this process of testing different ideas. 



Meanwhile, scholars were struggling to understand the human body and nature. They were interested not only in describing the natural world but in understanding it. They wanted to know, for example, why children resembled their parents and why maggots came from rotting meat. These early scholars tried to answer questions by reasoning and debate. Finally, in the sixteenth century, scholars realized that the method of testing alternatives employed by farmers and toolmakers could also be used to reveal cause-and-effect relations in natural phenomena. Instead of debating their ideas, they tested them with experiments and further examinations of nature. At this point, the scientific process was complete and modern science was born.
 

How the Biology and Society interact?

Most modern societies support the work of scientists. In re-turn, scientists contribute an understanding of the world that is as near as possible to the truth. Scientists are different from other scholars in that they deal only with phenomena that can be observed and measured. Phenomena that involve miracles and beliefs, such as religion and philosophy, lie outside the realm of science. 



Modern biologists seek to understand all aspects of the world within and around them. They earn their livings mainly as teachers and researchers. Some, however, are applied biologists who use biological knowledge to solve practical problems. Major areas of applied biology include medicine, agriculture, fisheries, conservation, and genetic engineering. All of us are applied biologists to some extent. Choosing a healthy diet or maintaining modern levels of hygiene, for example, re-quires the use of biological information.
 
In recent years, biological knowledge has given us extraordinary power to manipulate our physical selves (even our genes) and the world around us. It has raised many ethical questions. Should we be allowed to choose the sex of our child?
Should we transfer genes from one person to another? Should tissues from aborted fetuses be used to treat adult diseases? Should we develop human embryos in test tubes? Should we be able to clone these embryos? Answers to these questions involve value judgments, about which scientists have no special knowledge. Ethical questions are best answered by the society as a whole.

What does Scientific Process?

  Scientific thinking is a systematic way of seeking the truth, an ordinary human activity based on rationality, logic, and skepticism. You use it every day to solve practical problems. Say, for example, your desk light goes out. You consider the possibilities: the electricity is out in the house, you have accidentally dislodged the plug, or the light bulb has burned out. Next you test each alternative. You check other lights in the house, then look at the plug, and finally try replacing the bulb. This is the scientific way of thinking.
Outline of the Scientific Process The scientific process involves four activities: observing, hypothesizing, predicting, and testing. Usually many scientists work on different aspects of a problem at the same time. Often the activities are spread out over long periods